European History

A look at how the nature of warfare has changed in Europe over the centuries.

FREE Course

Mastering the Art of War in 10 Days

Join the millions of people who have benefited from Sun Tzu’s Art of War with this easy and simple guide to his famous text. Enter your email & I’ll immediately send you the first lesson of this course.

img.wp-smiley,img.emoji{display:inline !important;border:none !important;box-shadow:none !important;height:1em !important;width:1em !important;margin:0 .07em !important;vertical-align:-.1em !important;background:none !important;padding:0 !important;}.wp-block-rank-math-toc-block nav ol{counter-reset:item;}.wp-block-rank-math-toc-block nav ol li{display:block;}.wp-block-rank-math-toc-block nav ol li:before{content:counters(item,".") ". ";counter-increment:item;}.wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em;}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none;}body{--wp--preset--color--black:#000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray:#abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white:#fff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink:#f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red:#cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange:#ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber:#fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan:#7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan:#00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue:#8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue:#0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple:#9b51e0;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple:linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(6,147,227,1) 0%,#9b51e0 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan:linear-gradient(135deg,#7adcb4 0%,#00d082 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange:linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(252,185,0,1) 0%,rgba(255,105,0,1) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red:linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(255,105,0,1) 0%,#cf2e2e 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray:linear-gradient(135deg,#eee 0%,#a9b8c3 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum:linear-gradient(135deg,#4aeadc 0%,#9778d1 20%,#cf2aba 40%,#ee2c82 60%,#fb6962 80%,#fef84c 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple:linear-gradient(135deg,#ffceec 0%,#9896f0 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux:linear-gradient(135deg,#fecda5 0%,#fe2d2d 50%,#6b003e 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk:linear-gradient(135deg,#ffcb70 0%,#c751c0 50%,#4158d0 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean:linear-gradient(135deg,#fff5cb 0%,#b6e3d4 50%,#33a7b5 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass:linear-gradient(135deg,#caf880 0%,#71ce7e 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight:linear-gradient(135deg,#020381 0%,#2874fc 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small:13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium:20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large:36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large:42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20:.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30:.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40:1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50:1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60:2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70:3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80:5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural:6px 6px 9px rgba(0,0,0,.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep:12px 12px 50px rgba(0,0,0,.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp:6px 6px 0px rgba(0,0,0,.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined:6px 6px 0px -3px rgba(255,255,255,1),6px 6px rgba(0,0,0,1);--wp--preset--shadow--crisp:6px 6px 0px rgba(0,0,0,1);}:where(.is-layout-flex){gap:.5em;}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap:.5em;}body .is-layout-flex{display:flex;}body .is-layout-flex{flex-wrap:wrap;align-items:center;}body .is-layout-flex > *{margin:0;}body .is-layout-grid{display:grid;}body .is-layout-grid > *{margin:0;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap:2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap:2em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap:1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap:1.25em;}.has-black-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-color{color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color:var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important;}.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important;}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important;}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important;}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important;}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important;}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important;}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background:var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important;}.has-small-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important;}.has-medium-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important;}.has-large-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important;}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important;}.wp-block-navigation a:where(:not(.wp-element-button)){color:inherit;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap:1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap:1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap:2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap:2em;}.wp-block-pullquote{font-size:1.5em;line-height:1.6;}.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+4):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload),.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+4):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload) *{background-image:none !important;}@media screen and (max-height: 1024px){.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+3):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload),.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+3):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload) *{background-image:none !important;}.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+3):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload).nitro-lazy,.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+3):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload) *.nitro-lazy{background-image:none !important;}}@media screen and (max-height: 640px){.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+2):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload),.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+2):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload) *{background-image:none !important;}.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+2):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload).nitro-lazy,.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+2):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload) *.nitro-lazy{background-image:none !important;}}.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+4):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload).nitro-lazy,.e-con.e-parent:nth-of-type(n+4):not(.e-lazyloaded):not(.e-no-lazyload) *.nitro-lazy{background-image:none !important;}.elementor-widget-image{text-align:center;}.elementor-widget-image a{display:inline-block;}.elementor-widget-image a img[src$=".svg"]{width:48px;}.elementor-widget-image img{vertical-align:middle;display:inline-block;}.elementor-heading-title{padding:0;margin:0;line-height:1;}.elementor-widget-heading .elementor-heading-title[class*=elementor-size-]>a{color:inherit;font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;}.elementor-widget-heading .elementor-heading-title.elementor-size-small{font-size:15px;}.elementor-widget-heading .elementor-heading-title.elementor-size-medium{font-size:19px;}.elementor-widget-heading .elementor-heading-title.elementor-size-large{font-size:29px;}.elementor-widget-heading .elementor-heading-title.elementor-size-xl{font-size:39px;}.elementor-widget-heading .elementor-heading-title.elementor-size-xxl{font-size:59px;}.elementor-column .elementor-spacer-inner{height:var(--spacer-size);}.e-con{--container-widget-width:100%;}.e-con-inner>.elementor-widget-spacer,.e-con>.elementor-widget-spacer{width:var(--container-widget-width,var(--spacer-size));--align-self:var(--container-widget-align-self,initial);--flex-shrink:0;}.e-con-inner>.elementor-widget-spacer>.elementor-widget-container,.e-con>.elementor-widget-spacer>.elementor-widget-container{height:100%;width:100%;}.e-con-inner>.elementor-widget-spacer>.elementor-widget-container>.elementor-spacer,.e-con>.elementor-widget-spacer>.elementor-widget-container>.elementor-spacer{height:100%;}.e-con-inner>.elementor-widget-spacer>.elementor-widget-container>.elementor-spacer>.elementor-spacer-inner,.e-con>.elementor-widget-spacer>.elementor-widget-container>.elementor-spacer>.elementor-spacer-inner{height:var(--container-widget-height,var(--spacer-size));}.e-con-inner>.elementor-widget-spacer.elementor-widget-empty,.e-con>.elementor-widget-spacer.elementor-widget-empty{position:relative;min-height:22px;min-width:22px;}.e-con-inner>.elementor-widget-spacer.elementor-widget-empty .elementor-widget-empty-icon,.e-con>.elementor-widget-spacer.elementor-widget-empty .elementor-widget-empty-icon{position:absolute;top:0;bottom:0;left:0;right:0;margin:auto;padding:0;width:22px;height:22px;}.elementor-widget-text-editor.elementor-drop-cap-view-stacked .elementor-drop-cap{background-color:#69727d;color:#fff;}.elementor-widget-text-editor.elementor-drop-cap-view-framed .elementor-drop-cap{color:#69727d;border:3px solid;background-color:transparent;}.elementor-widget-text-editor:not(.elementor-drop-cap-view-default) .elementor-drop-cap{margin-top:8px;}.elementor-widget-text-editor:not(.elementor-drop-cap-view-default) .elementor-drop-cap-letter{width:1em;height:1em;}.elementor-widget-text-editor .elementor-drop-cap{float:left;text-align:center;line-height:1;font-size:50px;}.elementor-widget-text-editor .elementor-drop-cap-letter{display:inline-block;}.elementor-button.elementor-hidden,.elementor-hidden{display:none;}.e-form__step{width:100%;}.e-form__step:not(.elementor-hidden){display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;}.e-form__buttons{flex-wrap:wrap;}.e-form__buttons,.e-form__buttons__wrapper{display:flex;}.e-form__indicators{display:flex;justify-content:space-between;align-items:center;flex-wrap:nowrap;font-size:13px;margin-bottom:var(--e-form-steps-indicators-spacing);}.e-form__indicators__indicator{display:flex;flex-direction:column;align-items:center;justify-content:center;flex-basis:0;padding:0 var(--e-form-steps-divider-gap);}.e-form__indicators__indicator__progress{width:100%;position:relative;background-color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-progress-background-color);border-radius:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-progress-border-radius);overflow:hidden;}.e-form__indicators__indicator__progress__meter{width:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-progress-meter-width,0);height:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-progress-height);line-height:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-progress-height);padding-right:15px;border-radius:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-progress-border-radius);background-color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-progress-color);color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-progress-meter-color);text-align:right;transition:width .1s linear;}.e-form__indicators__indicator:first-child{padding-left:0;}.e-form__indicators__indicator:last-child{padding-right:0;}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-inactive{color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-inactive-primary-color,#c2cbd2);}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-inactive [class*=indicator--shape-]:not(.e-form__indicators__indicator--shape-none){background-color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-inactive-secondary-color,#fff);}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-inactive object,.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-inactive svg{fill:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-inactive-primary-color,#c2cbd2);}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-active{color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-active-primary-color,#39b54a);border-color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-active-secondary-color,#fff);}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-active [class*=indicator--shape-]:not(.e-form__indicators__indicator--shape-none){background-color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-active-secondary-color,#fff);}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-active object,.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-active svg{fill:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-active-primary-color,#39b54a);}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-completed{color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-completed-secondary-color,#fff);}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-completed [class*=indicator--shape-]:not(.e-form__indicators__indicator--shape-none){background-color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-completed-primary-color,#39b54a);}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-completed .e-form__indicators__indicator__label{color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-completed-primary-color,#39b54a);}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-completed .e-form__indicators__indicator--shape-none{color:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-completed-primary-color,#39b54a);background-color:initial;}.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-completed object,.e-form__indicators__indicator--state-completed svg{fill:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-completed-secondary-color,#fff);}.e-form__indicators__indicator__icon{width:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-padding,30px);height:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-padding,30px);font-size:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-icon-size);border-width:1px;border-style:solid;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;overflow:hidden;margin-bottom:10px;}.e-form__indicators__indicator__icon img,.e-form__indicators__indicator__icon object,.e-form__indicators__indicator__icon svg{width:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-icon-size);height:auto;}.e-form__indicators__indicator__icon .e-font-icon-svg{height:1em;}.e-form__indicators__indicator__number{width:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-padding,30px);height:var(--e-form-steps-indicator-padding,30px);border-width:1px;border-style:solid;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:10px;}.e-form__indicators__indicator--shape-circle{border-radius:50%;}.e-form__indicators__indicator--shape-square{border-radius:0;}.e-form__indicators__indicator--shape-rounded{border-radius:5px;}.e-form__indicators__indicator--shape-none{border:0;}.e-form__indicators__indicator__label{text-align:center;}.e-form__indicators__indicator__separator{width:100%;height:var(--e-form-steps-divider-width);background-color:#babfc5;}.e-form__indicators--type-icon,.e-form__indicators--type-icon_text,.e-form__indicators--type-number,.e-form__indicators--type-number_text{align-items:flex-start;}.e-form__indicators--type-icon .e-form__indicators__indicator__separator,.e-form__indicators--type-icon_text .e-form__indicators__indicator__separator,.e-form__indicators--type-number .e-form__indicators__indicator__separator,.e-form__indicators--type-number_text .e-form__indicators__indicator__separator{margin-top:calc(var(--e-form-steps-indicator-padding,30px) / 2 - var(--e-form-steps-divider-width,1px) / 2);}.elementor-field-type-hidden{display:none;}.elementor-field-type-html{display:inline-block;}.elementor-field-type-tel input{direction:inherit;}.elementor-login .elementor-lost-password,.elementor-login .elementor-remember-me{font-size:.85em;}.elementor-field-type-recaptcha_v3 .elementor-field-label{display:none;}.elementor-field-type-recaptcha_v3 .grecaptcha-badge{z-index:1;}.elementor-button .elementor-form-spinner{order:3;}.elementor-form .elementor-button>span{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;}.elementor-form .elementor-button .elementor-button-text{white-space:normal;flex-grow:0;}.elementor-form .elementor-button svg{height:auto;}.elementor-form .elementor-button .e-font-icon-svg{height:1em;}.elementor-select-wrapper .select-caret-down-wrapper{position:absolute;top:50%;transform:translateY(-50%);inset-inline-end:10px;pointer-events:none;font-size:11px;}.elementor-select-wrapper .select-caret-down-wrapper svg{display:unset;width:1em;aspect-ratio:unset;fill:currentColor;}.elementor-select-wrapper .select-caret-down-wrapper i{font-size:19px;line-height:2;}.elementor-select-wrapper.remove-before:before{content:"" !important;}

European History

Humiliation for Russia during the Crimean War

Napoleon’s Bid for Mastery

Prelude to the Napoleonic Wars

Geopolitics of the American Revolutionary War

Diplomatic Revolution & the Seven Years’ War

The Sun King’s Bid for Mastery

Did the Habsburg Dynasty Rule for Over 800 Years?

The Habsburg Attempt to Dominate the Continent

The Rise of Europe from Backwater to Colonial Power

4 Shocking Causes of WWI – No, It’s Not Just Germany’s Fault

FREE Course

Mastering the Art of War in 10 Days